Ethics Essay

In comparing the similarities and differences in ethical theories, the goals of each theory and the morals and values that can be observed in the process. While the following ethical theories appear similar on the surface virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontological ethical will be discussed and their differences will be defined. Virtue Theory relates to the pursuit of excellence in everything you do. As one commercial put it, â€Å"Be all that you can be† (U. S. Army 1981). One must have the idea that if they want to maximize their greatest potential, they must work hard to produce it. To the Utilitarian this may appear selfish, but self-discipline and self-determination is key to achieving the goal. Oxford dictionary describes utilitarianism as one who practices the doctrine that produces the greatest happiness of the greatest number. For example, a busy mother gives great sacrifice of putting her needs aside to take care of her three children who are home sick with the flu. At this moment, the mother, who is also sick with a temperature of 102 F, is not practicing virtue theory because; the mother has currently put her needs aside. The mother is practicing patience and compassion to assure that her children get the care that they need. Boylan (page 171) describes Deontological ethics as a moral theory that emphasizes one’s duty to do a particular action just because it is right and not through any other sort of calculations. An example of this would include presenting an inventory sheet to authorities proving that fraudulent activity has occurred buy a company that has been charging customers extra for supplies. The distinct difference of these theories suggests that virtual theory focuses attention toward creating greatness within one’s self. Utilitarianism focuses attention by creating greatness toward the masses. Deontological ethics relates to doing what is right whether it be for one’s self or for the masses with the understanding that happiness is not the goal but a moral responsibility is. A personal experience explaining the relationship between virtue, values, and moral concepts includes a deontological experience that I had several years ago. One Friday afternoon I walked into a bank to cash a check in the amount of $527. 28. The teller cashed my check, but I did not bother to double check the money until I got home. After checking and double-checking the money that evening, I came to the realization that I had 627. 28 cash in my envelope. The teller accidently gave me an additional $100 dollar bill. I could not go back to the bank to address the problem because the bank had closed for the day. I could not with good conscious keep the money because my family has instilled strong morals and values of honesty, integrity, and dignity within me. The money must be returned for it is the morally right thing to do. Saturday morning I drove back to the bank and asked for the manager and explained what had happened. I handed over the entire envelope as it was presented to me and I explained that two very crisp one hundred dollar bills were so tightly stuck together that it appeared as one bill. The manager surprised at what had transpired the day before, thanked me for my honesty and determination to see that the money was returned. I told the manager that I appreciate her kind words but it was truly the right thing to do. Though comparing the similarities and differences with these moral standards, ethical theories along with morals and values can be observed in the process. While it is clear that these theories may appear similar in nature the following ethical theories, virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontological ethical will be discussed and their differences will be defined.

Master

It includes: copying information directly from the Web or books without referencing the material; submitting Joint coursework as an individual effort; copying another student's rework; stealing coursework from another student and submitting it as your own work. Suspected plagiarism will be investigated and if found to have occurred will be dealt with according to the procedures set down by ELLS. Please see your student handbook for further details of what is / Isn't plagiarism.Assignment Regulations 1 Learners are required to submit their work using the ELLS Assessment cover sheet. 2 You are required to submit your assignment electronically on Mayhap – mayhap. Molly's. Com If you need an extension (even for one day) for a valid reason, you must request one, using a reasonable adjustment form available from the Academic Admit Office. Do not ask the lecturers responsible for the course – they are not authorized to award an extension.The completed form must be accompanied by evidence such as a medical certificate in the event of you being sick. 4 General guidelines for submission of assignment: a) All work must be word-processed and must be of â€Å"good† standard. B) Document margins shall not be more than 2. CM or less than 1. CM c)Font size In the range of be of a common standard such as Arial or Times New Roman for the main text. D) Any computer files generated such as program code (software), graphic files that arm part of the course work must be submitted either online or with the documentation.The answers show that an effective approach to study and research has been applied within the scenarios e. G. Comparing concepts, theories and models. MM Select/design and apply appropriate methods/techniques A range of methods and techniques have been applied. A range of sources of information used The selection of methods and techniques/ sources Justified Complex information/data has been synthesized and processed Appropriate learning methods/te chniques applied. A range of sources have been used to address the tasksMM Present and communicate appropriate findings Appropriate structure and approach has been used. Accurately used A range of methods of presentation has been used Appropriate media used Familiar and unfamiliar contexts have been used. It is appropriate for familiar and unfamiliar audiences Logical and coherent arguments have been presented with technical language accurately used in both tasks Use critical reflection to evaluate own work and Justify valid conclusions Synthesis has been used to generate and Justify valid conclusions The validity of exults have been evaluated using defined criteria. Realistic improvements have been proposed against defined characteristics for success Realistic improvements have been proposed against defined characteristics for success DO Take responsibility for managing and organizing activities Autonomy / independence demonstrated The unforeseen has been accommodated The importanc e of interdependence has been recognized High autonomy and independence have been demonstrated.Tasks have been attempted with minimum assistance provided by the tutor DO Demonstrate convergent/lateral/ creative thinking sessions taken Self-evaluation has taken place Convergent and lateral thinking have been applied. Problems have been solved Innovation and creative thought have been applied. Receptiveness to new ideas has been demonstrated. Ideas generated and Effective thinking has taken place in unfamiliar contexts.Innovation and creative thought have been applied when addressing both tasks Classic Badges Company Brief Classic Badges Company is in the early stages of setting up as a new mini enterprise which will sell custom made badges to local companies. They are hoping to target he local authority, schools, youth organizations, health service and local dental surgeries. They plan to sell badges which can be tailored to individual needs. The knowledge, effective communication me dia with the suppliers and potential customers such as the local authority, school etc who may be interested in buying the badges.Charles needs a team to take responsibility for the setting up of the company and the communication media to be used to promote the badges. You have been selected as one of the team members to work on this project. You are to collaborate with team members to set up Classic Badges Company. Note: Use the above scenario to answer ONLY TASK 1 ; 2. And read through all of the tasks carefully so that you know what you will need to do to complete this assignment in a fully written report. Tasks 1 – Understand how to assess information and knowledge needs 1 . : In Setting up Classic Badges Company, what are the major range of decisions to be taken? Discuss 1. 2: Identify and examine the kind of information and knowledge needed to ensure that an effective decisions are taken. 1. 3: List and assess internal and external sources of information required and Ju stify heir suitability and reliability for this project. 1. 4: Recommend any improvements in the use of different kinds or sources information and knowledge for the setting up of this project.Tasks 2 – Be able to create strategies to increase personal networking to widen involvement in the decision making process. 2. 1: There are several stakeholders in involved in this project, what contributions would you expect from the different stakeholders during a specific decision making process? 2. 2: An effective business relationship with these stakeholders is important. Discuss ethos of contact that will enhance business relationship with stakeholders. 2. 3: Prepare a plan on how to involve those identified in the decision making for this project.You may consider a stakeholder communication plan or a decision making action plan. 2. 4: To improve on involving others in the decision making process for this project, it is important to improve on your personal networking skills. What strategy would you Tasks 3 – Be able to develop communication processes Using the context of your current or previous workplace, prepare a report addressing he following issues but first you'll need to provide a brief business overview (business description, legal status, mission statement, general information, product/ service description). . 1 : Report on existing processes of communication in this organization. 3. 2: Identify the pitfalls existing in the current communication processes and design ways to improve it. 3. 3: Recommend the improvements that need to be implemented to ensure greater integration of systems of communication in that organization. 3. 4: Create a personal plan to improve own communication skills. Tasks 4 – Be able to improve systems relating to information and knowledge Complete this part of your report using the same chosen organization in Task 3: 4. : Report on existing approaches to the collection, formatting, storage and dissemination of i nformation and knowledge in this organization. 4. 2: Discuss the appropriate changes that need to be carried out to improve the collection, formatting, storage and dissemination of information and knowledge in this organization. 4. 3: Recommend a strategy that needs to be implemented to improve access to systems of information and knowledge in this organization. Master A metal made up of a combination of two or more materials. Atmospheric pressure The weight of air creates a pressure on the Earth's surface and the pressure exerted by the weight of air pressing down on the ground below will vary depending on the ground's height above sea level. Boiling When a liquid vaporizes. Capillary action When water is drawn up between close fitting surfaces. Compression force A crushing force. Condensation When a gas turns into a liquid. Conduction Method by which solids transfer heat.Convection Method by which liquids and gases transfer heat. Corrosion The deterioration of metals that occurs on contact with liquids. Ductility Ductility Is the ability of a material to withstand distortion without fracture, such as metal that can be drawn into fine wire. Durability Durability is the material's ability to resist wear and tear. Elasticity A material's ability to stretch tensile force is applied to them. When the point is reached that the material will no longer r eturn to it's original shape and size the material is said to have exceeded it's elastic limit or yield stress. Equilibrium When all acting influences are balanced.Evaporation When a liquid turns Into a gas. Ferrous metal A metal which contains iron. Freezing When a liquid turns Into a solid. Fusibility The melting point of a material, I. E. When a solid changes too liquid. Hardness Hardness is the ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear and Heat which causes a change of state in a substance, but does not affects its temperature. Malleability The ability of a material to be worked without fracture. Melting When a solid turns into a liquid. Non-ferrous metal A metal which does not contain iron. Plasticity The propensity of a material to undergo permanent changes in shape.H scale Measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A pH of 7 represents neutral water. Reduction A method of producing metals is by removing the oxygen from the ore. Relative density The rati o of the density of a substance to the density of a standard substance under specific conditions. The relative density of a solid is found by comparing it to the same volume of water. The relative density of a gas is found by comparing it to the same volume of air. Sensible heat Heat which only causes a change in temperature, not a change of state. Shear force Opposing forces acting along parallel lines of action.Strength The strength of a material is the extent to which it can withstand an applied force or load without breaking. The load is expressed in terms of force per unit area (Newton's per square meter N/mm). Temper The degree of hardness of a material. Tenacity A material's ability to resist being pulled apart. Tensile force A stretching or pulling force. Thermoplastics Plastics which are liquid when heated and hard when cooled. These plastics can be reshaped repeatedly. Thermosetting plastics Plastics which are resistant to high temperatures. Once set, these plastics cannot be reshaped. Velocity Speed of motion.

Legal Systems

Rawls describes individual rights as, â€Å"rights representing the moral rights of individuals in society prior to government. Individual rights are principles that identify and sanction certain interactions between individuals in a society while excluding others,† (20) Different countries have different ways of guarding their citizens’ human rights. Governments that respect individual rights often provide for comprehensive controls that protect individual rights. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the body that deals with the rights of Canadian citizens. The Charter is law and is part of the Canadian constitution. Since the charter is law, the federal government can not easily make changes to it. It is also stronger than laws the provinces create. www.hrweb.org/. It guarantees freedoms called fundamental freedoms; freedom of conscience and religion, freedom of thought, belief and expression, including freedom of all media and other press. Freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of association is also guaranteed. These are the basic freedoms that the Canadian citizens share. However, the Charter allows for the limit of these freedoms under certain circumstances like, restricting the freedom of assembly in time of war. To help a disadvantaged group achieve equality, it allows differential treatment. The Chatter is to be interpreted in way that preserves and enhances the multicultural heritage of Canadians. The United States constitution on human rights is very similar in content to the outlined Canadian individual rights apart from the some rights in the Canadian Charter can be overridden by governments if they deliberately do so. This is not the case with the United States Human rights laws which cannot even be even removed entirely by a constitutional amendment as they are considered unchallengeable under the natural rights principles the Constitution is founded upon. The United States human rights laws, unlike British laws are applicable to everyone in the country as a whole and are not subject to small state adherence. ‘Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein,’ (Rawls 25). Unlike the British Human Rights Constitution that is set within the United Kingdom, United States made a universal declaration of its human rights protection strategy. New Zealand, which is a former colony of Britain  in its human rights protection aims at developing harmonious relationships between individuals and achievement of equal employment opportunity.   New Zealand have accepted a very limited right to privacy on specific topics while primarily balancing privacy as one interest against security, commercial and political interests in fragmented legislation and tort law rulings, unlike   Britain, which has very complete rules on privacy rights of individuals. www.hrweb.org/ Britain has a very complete and elaborate system in handling human rights issues. It has an official   union that deals with human rights that is, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which has several protocols guarding human rights The protocols accepted vary from one state to another this is effective in reaching all targets as per their individual need. These protocols include laws prohibiting death penalty, protection against torture, protection against slavery and forced labor with the exception of prison labor and national services. To those protected by the convention of liberty and lawful arrest. Britain has also established a special court that deals with human rights violation, European Court of Human Rights, where the court decision is legally binding and the court awards damages. Inter-state rights violation cases can also be taken to this court for states that are party ton that protocol. This provides the individual with immunity against abuse and special hearing of cases. The protocol outlines the procedures of a fair trial. Religion, marriage and privacy are also covered in the British human rights laws. The protocols also prohibit discrimination of whatever kind. The amendment of the laws for human rights is also possible with the British system, unlike the American system where the law is protect under natural rights systems. The British laws are much more flexible to meet the needs of the time and change of priority. When protocols are introduced, they need to pass the universal ratification before they come into force in order to maintain the institutional unity of the Convention machinery. Despite the British human rights protection strategies being almost similar in content to the other countries, it is more elaborate and its administration being under its own special court makes it be independent of the general laws and normal courts jurisdiction. The application of the laws per state also gives the citizens a free choice when it comes to living by the set rules. Its amendments are also much more flexible to expansions and being managed by a special body and not politicians, it’s more effective in administration and management of issues. Work Cited Rawls, John, A Theory of Justice (Revised edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Press, 1999. â€Å"Human Rights†1st July, 2007.Worldwide Human Rights Network.25th May, 2007  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  www.hrweb.org/                                    

Domestic violence Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Domestic violence - Research Paper Example Most of the time such as happened in this case, the victims of domestic violence find it difficult to accept their situation and report the case to the authorities. As such, most cases go unreported especially for men due to fear of what the society would think of them. For women, they rely much on men hence fear loss of economic sustenance or fear their partner would more violent towards them if they reported the case. Furthermore, domestic violence occurs within confines of the home thus making it difficult to detect unless the victim reports. Sometimes police regard it as a family matter hence no need for reporting. In Connecticut State, dating violence was not given much consideration; they were exempted from arrest fro domestic abuse (CCADV, 2013). As of October 1, 2011 domestic violence laws in Connecticut apply to you if a person with whom you are in or have recently been in a dating relationship perpetrates violence against you. Domestic violence is a criminal offense punishable by law especially if it involves assault. As such, the person perpetrating the violence, in this case Sarah’s boyfriend can be arrested and arraigned in a court of law for assault. If assault is third degree it is regarded as misdemeanor and attracts a punishment of one year imprisonment but if assault is first or second degree it is a felony punishable by more than one year in jail (Hart, Davies & Epler-Epstein, 2011, p. 11). The boyfriend caused physical injury to Sarah by breaking her arm and on another instance by hitting her on the mouth as evidenced by bleeding mouth. For such an offense the offender is liable to imprisonment and deserves to be arrested whether or not Sarah makes a claim to the police department provided the evidence and testimony by witnesses prove such a crime was committed. The police also determine if the victim needs medical assistance and helps them by also advising them to

Why so many people eat fast food Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Why so many people eat fast food - Essay Example This change in lifestyle has interfered with their time for finding or preparing healthy food. The remaining option is reaching out for the fast food, which will save time. Likewise, women who were entitled to prepare food for their families are also competing in the job markets. They happen to secure popular titles in the job market thereby limiting their time for preparing food for their families. This change in lifestyle happens to be a significant reason as to why most people prefer fast food in most nations (Smith 7). Ideally, the current generation has proved to access extra finances compared to the past generation. The availability of money probes individuals to stop at the fast food joints and take anything ready. This also has a significant impact on the rising statistics on fast food consumption. As people access more money, they tend to eat outside their homes more often. Eating outside means taking food from a fast food restaurant thus increasing the statistics as to why individuals take fast food (Taylor, Funk and Craighill). Finally yet importantly, the statistics for fast food consumption is on the rise because of the modern life. Most food industries have advanced in their marketing strategies, and this probe people to change their eating habits. This concern with the advertising agencies, which make adverts on the fast food on media. Families will always want to taste new things due to change in their desire. Likewise, the moral advice on the food choice continues to slow down as the hosts have limited time with their family, thus exposing them to poor choices of food. This modern lifestyle altogether changed the eating habits of most people in the family most of them relying on fast food as the main alternative (Taylor, Funk and Craighill). Change of diet can have a serious impact to the lives of consumers in many perspectives.

Organizational Policies on Sexual Harassment Research Paper

Organizational Policies on Sexual Harassment - Research Paper Example The research paper "Organizational Policies on Sexual Harassment" talks about the sexual harassment, a chief vice that is facing modern organizations. Since sexual harassment can cripple the company’s operation and affluence, it is imperative finding the underlying cause of the quandary, addressing fit to the staff members and making clear and plausible policies, rules and tenets governing the behavior of the workers. Therefore, very adept decisions in a meeting with all staff members ought to be addressed and clear guidelines put forward. Therefore, the following paragraphs espouse the various approaches to tackle the setback of sexual harassment in the specific sections to avoid pitfalls that could possibly result into lame operations and poor performance by the company. The organization should stipulate a policy discouraging and barring sexual harassment and severe penalties failure to compliance. The policies should be clear and fighting malicious accusations and deliberate misconduct on the part of sexual harassment cases. The human resource officials ought to inform the members of staff on the suitable procedures in the pressing of grievances when an individual is harassed sexually. Through an array of awareness and teaching tactics, the organization ought to treat the employees to intensive teaching and training on intelligence concerning the problem at hand and how to react accordingly. Additionally, the department heads to identify any hidden cases should conduct surveys.

Design in Contemporary Contexts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Design in Contemporary Contexts - Essay Example So the 1850’s and onwards the term Realism was used by artists and designers. Romanticism was subjective and Realism was objective. The current historicism has been opposed by modernism with a series of ideas that included Romanticism itself. But a painting school originating in France called Impressionism had a particular impact on modernism. Initially it was work done in air not in the studios as they believed that human beings did not see objects but what they see is the light. With time, the studies of the school became a great influence. When the century was turning, there were three concepts that were in conflict. Firstly, machines as being a part of beauty were considered important. Secondly, the subjective experience was important. Lastly, there was a necessity that a system replaces the concept of objective reality. The first fifteen years of twentieth century of modernism were marked by famous artists such as Matisse, the abstract paintings of Wassily Kandinsky and m any others. To this point, modernism enjoyed subjective experience and the idea of a simplified structure. Cinemas were introduced during this period and the idea of moving pictures gave modernism a unique art form. The art of photography also affected modernism. Modernism began to merge with consumer culture during the 1960’s after World War II. Along with modernist art, modernist design entered the popular cultures. This amalgamation transformed the meaning of modernism itself. This kind of modernism suggested the rejection of tradition which itself became a tradition. It also suggested that there was a difference between the elite modernist and mass consumerist culture and this difference had lost its precision. This marked the start of the Post Modernism era. (Museum Quality, 2007). Two Modernist Artists/Designers Marcel Duchamp was one of the modernist artist who had become famous from the year 1916 when he had installed ready-made objects such as hat stands, bottle stan ds in the art gallery. In 1917, the Fountain which was a ready made object had entered the art history as an iconic object. (Meecham and Sheldon, 2005, p.17).One of his famous quotes are: â€Å"The creative act is not performed by the artist alone; the spectator brings the work in contact with the external world by deciphering and interpreting its inner qualifications and thus adds his contribution to the creative act.† The above quote stated by Duchamp suggests that modernism can be understood in terms of objectivism through observation of the real world entities and incorporating those observations in art. This shows that he followed the Dadaist and Surrealist Movements. Edward Johnston was another famous modernist artist who became famous in the 1919 when he came up with his iconic object called the London Underground which was a modified form of an existing logo and became greatly popular and liked. He was among the early artists who brought corporate taste in artistic pi ece. (MobileReference). One of the famous quotes by Johnston is: â€Å"A man who don’t know history, he don’t know anything.† Hence, this shows that Johnston believed historicism in art. Marcel Duchamp Marcel Duchamp was a French artist who supported the Dadaist and Surrealist movements. His artwork influenced the Western art’s development after the World War I. He influenced many other famous artists with his

Local Cycling strategy and promotion Assignment

Local Cycling strategy and promotion - Assignment Example Local Cycling strategy and promotion: The former strategy is focused on developing a transportation system that is balanced and safe for bicycles as well. This plan includes the strategies for next 30 years. The later strategy is focused on promoting and establishing the fact that bicycles are safe, popular and accepted transportation and recreational mode. Components of Perth Bicycle Network: The two main local transport networks that come under the jurisdiction of PBN are: 1) Local bicycle routes 2) Principal transport routes Local bicycle routes: This concept is focused on making every street reasonable and safe for bicycle which includes linking quite residential streets by making them safer, attractive and continuous for longer journeys too. The routes developed under the local strategy should have proper pavement markings which do not require the cyclists to hold a map along for navigational guidance. These routes require low cost for implementation and have higher usage. Principle transport routes: This route is dual and of high standard as it includes full separation with lighting in order to ensure safe journey for users. It offers comprehensive and high safety to cyclists as it provides complete separation from motor traffic due to high standard of designing. These routes are generally found in freeway reserves and suburban railway. Although under this strategy, the existing paths and roads network has been improved but there are still some deficiencies. These problems are due to lack of maintenance generally. The hindrance in this strategy and its implementation is due to the development of facilities that are unsuitable to the cycling network development. Following are the problems that require immediate action: 1) Traffic calming leads to the squeeze points 2) Lack of maintenance 3) Kerb ramps of unfriendly nature 4) Traffic signals with unresponsive sensors 5) Dangerous and rough drainage grates 6) hindrance in the use of dual paths 7) spills on the road 8) green routes unsafe due to changes 9) design problems of underpasses and bridges All these issues need consultations with local government and development of different projects would be required for countering these issues (Garrard and Rissel, 2006). Implementation of the network: This is the stage which is focused on developing the route continuity by su ccessive upgrading in the next two stages. Stage one will offer the continuous bicycle routes for allowing access throughout the network by ensuring safety. The second stage will provide increased safety and service level along with enhancing the network. The third and final stage will focus on developing ultimate network by considering and eliminating issues like grade-separation, generic issues, parking facilities, cycle lockers and expansion. Bike Ahead: Bicycle Strategy for the 21st Century (Western Australia) Cycling is increasingly becoming an essential transportation mode in Western Australia. Cycling no more is considered a recreational activity but an alternative for people who cannot drive or own a motor vehicle. The basic document, Metropolitan Transport Strategy (1995), focuses on the importance of alternatives to motor car. Bike Ahead on the other hand suggests several actions required to prove the importance of cycle by ensuring that people would have access to high li ver of services, goods and activities without sacrificing the environment. Perth Bikeplan of 1985 had

Macroeconomics of Financial Markets Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Macroeconomics of Financial Markets - Assignment Example Foreign businesses that would like to purchase goods in the US have to convert the currencies they have into US dollars. However, a rising dollar makes the foreign businesses to use much of their currencies to obtain a unit of US dollar. Thus, the foreign businesses will use more US dollars to obtain a product in the US. This means that businesses in the US that export goods and services will prefer a rising dollar. As the dollar rises, they obtain higher amounts for the goods that they export. This would be the same for a European tourist who comes to the US to visit the Grand Canyon. The tourist will have to change the European pounds that he or she has for US dollars. However, in case the dollar is rising, it means that the value of the dollar is declining. Thus, one unit of European pound will fetch more units of US dollar (Thomas, 2006). Therefore, the European tourist will obtain more units of US dollars. He or she will be able to access more products and services when he or sh e reaches the United States. Question Two The Fed can use various methods to create money. Creation of money refers to the methods that the Fed uses to manage the quantity of money that is in circulation in the economy. One of the methods is through open market operations. This refers to purchase and sale of United States’ government bonds (Ritter, Silber, & Udell, 2004). The Fed can buy government bonds from the public. This increases the amount of money in circulation in the United States. As the government buys bonds, it releases money into the economy. Alternatively, in case the Fed wants to reduce the amount of money in the economy, it can sell government bonds to the public (Mishkin, 2010). The sale of government bonds makes the Fed take money from the public and offers the public bonds. Therefore, the amount of money in circulation decreases. The Fed can use commercial banks’ reserve requirements to influence the amount of money in circulation (Burton, Brown, & Burton, 2009). Commercial banks must retain a given proportion of the deposits they receive. Thus, commercial banks cannot lend all the money deposited in their accounts. An increase in reserve ratio means that commercial banks will reduce the amount of money that they lend to the public. This reduces the amount of money in circulation. On the other hand, a decrease in reserve ratio requirement means that commercial banks can lend more money to the customers. Thus, the amount of money in circulation increases. The Fed can also influence the amount of money in circulation through the discount window (Thomas, 2006). Commercial banks usually borrow money from the Fed since it is the lender of the last resort. The Fed usually charges an interest whenever commercial banks borrow money. The Fed can increase the interest rate it charges to the commercial banks to reduce the amount of money in circulation. Alternatively, it can reduce the interest rate to increase the amount of money in cir culation. Finally, the Fed can make recommendations to the treasury so that money supply can be increased through printing (Ritter, Silber, & Udell, 2004). The Fed does not directly control money through printing or minting. The treasury prints notes and mints coins. This method can be used to direct the quantity of money in the economy. The most powerful method is the open market operation. However, the most commonly used method is the discount window or rate. It enables gradual reduction or increase in money in

Interplay of Bilbo's Tookish and Baggins sides in J.R.R Tolkein's 'The Essay

Interplay of Bilbo's Tookish and Baggins sides in J.R.R Tolkein's 'The Hobbit' - Essay Example Bilbo Baggins, the protagonist, is a timid hobbit who although a good man from inside is prone to living the life that he has always led. He doesn’t leave his home even though he has a ‘Tookish’ adventurous enigma in his blood from his mother’s side. It seems as though the Baggins side (His father’s), overwhelms his personality more than anything else. At the beginning, he is seen to be kind and serene, living in the nobility of his name in his home town and drinking tea like the old English. However, after he is set on the adventure at the persistence of Gandalf the Wizard, probably the friend he admires the most, that he lets other aspects intercept his usually peace and quiet loving nature. At the end though after the battle and when he sees the familiarity of home, he feels at peace again and does not want to go away from it for a long time. He lives in the stories and even though the days seem long to him because he has, after all, made the most exciting journey that settling would be hard after that. Still, it is very clear that he has embraced his Tookish side and is very confident about himself. The conflicts that he was facing early on and during the middle of his journey is nonexistent the heroism he had portrayed at circumstances forth facilitates the better understanding and self-reliance he has now. He does not possess a dual personality; he just had not experienced the many talents and hidden courage he had. They were explored only because Gandalf had faith in his little friend. The transformation he faced from start to end is just learning and molding of character because he still is the same Bilbo Baggins.

FIRST and Second Amendment Assignment (CRJ 733) Essay

FIRST and Second Amendment Assignment (CRJ 733) - Essay Example In Virginia v. Black et al. certiorari to the supreme court of Virginia, no.01-1107 (2003) Justice O’Connor announced the following, â€Å"In this case we consider whether the Commonwealth of Virginia's statute banning cross burning with intent to intimidate a person or group of persons" violates the First Amendment. Va. Code Ann.  §18.2-423 (1996). We conclude that while a State, consistent with the First Amendment, may ban cross burning carried out with the intent to intimidate, the provision in the Virginia statute treating any cross burning as prima facie evidence of intent to intimidate renders the statute unconstitutional in its current form.† (Virginia v. Black 1) As a result of this prior decision made the appropriate decision at this time would seem to support the actions of the defendant and while the use of an effigy burning may be seen as a threat it does not by itself constitute a threat to said individual. The action of effigy burning is an approximation and does not promote violence in and of it. Additionally the burning of an effigy remains a political act and in concert with the prior decision in (Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397) which held that the desecration of the flag at this time while in violation of local state law is not in fact a violation of the First Amendment, meaning the conviction of Ms. Monique shall be overturned as a result as the law of the land is the Constitution and as such the actions taken by Ms. Monique are in line with the allowances for protest that are outlined in the First Amendment. Additionally in the prior case the as with this current case the individual has been convicted based on their engagement in expressive conduct and while the defendant may have disturbed the peace, they did not effectively violate the First Amendment. The expulsion should therefore be overturned. First Amendment, "United States Constitution, Bill of Rights." Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute. N.p., 2011. Web. 29 Mar 2011. http://topics.law.cornell.edu/constitution/billofrights#amendmenti TEXAS v. JOHNSON, 491 U.S. 397 (1989), "491 U.S. 397 TEXAS v. JOHNSON CERTIORARI TO THE COURT OF CRIMINAL APPEALS OF TEXAS No. 88-155. Argued March 21, 1989 Decided June 21, 1989." Find Law for legal professionals. N.p., 2011. Web. 29 Mar 2011. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=491&invol=397 VIRGINIA v. BLACK, â€Å"Virginia v. BLACK et al. certiorari to the supreme court of Virginia No. 01-1107. Argued December 11, 2002--Decided April 7, 2003." Find Law for legal professionals. N.p., 2011. Web. 29 Mar 2011. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&navby=case&vol=000&invol=01-1107 Opinion two, supporting the expulsion The Teaching Fellow Ms. Monique engaged in an act of civil disobedience that resulted in the State University President Max Piker feeling that his life had been threatened. While the initial action was meant as a symbolic statement a nd that is protected by the First Amendment it should be noted that threats or intimidation are not. The First Amendment specifically protects peaceable protest however, does not protect protest in which there is used threats and intimidation. In using an effigy that was

Lenins View of Economic Policies in Russia Essay Example for Free

Lenins View of Economic Policies in Russia Essay Lenins view of economic polices in Russia between 1917 and 1923 was shaped by the factors of War Communism, and the New Economic Plan (NEP). Lenin realized that to have a successful economy and to keep the idea of equality in Communism there had to be a compromise; there needed to be a balance of state control and individual incentive for the economy to prosper. Through the failure of War Communism and the success of the economy and the drift away from Communism with the NEP; Lenin learned the dos and donts of a successful economy. Lenin described what the country needed to do to have a successful economy, he said, We have found that a degree of private commercial interest, with state supervision and control of that interest, is all we actually need (doc. 5). This shows how both War Communism and the NEP were factors that shaped Lenins compromising idea of what a economy needed to be successful. The War Communism policy was adopted to keep the Red Army supplied. During War Communism the government took control of industry, and told factories what to produce; and the government would take any grain that was produced by the farmers. The Cheka would steel the grain that the farmers produced, this made the farmers angry and they no longer had any incentive to grow crops because the crops would just be taken away from them. Also money became worthless, wages were paid in food or other goods, and many people bartered goods instead of using money. The situation for the farmers and the peasants got worse. By 1921 Russias economy was shattered. Industrial production had drastically decreased; and the cities were in chaos. Agriculture had been demolished. War Communism was put in affect to increase the productivity of both industrial goods and food, but the workers and farmers saw no point in putting in the effort if in the end it would be taken away from them. War Communism led to the destruction of the economy of Russia. Lenin finally admitted that War Communism was a mistake, he said, The small farmer needs a spur, and incentive that accords with his condition We are very much to blame for having gone to far; we overdid the nationalization of industry and trade, clamping down on the local exchange of commodities. Was that a mistake? It certainly was. (doc. 4) This quote is an example of how Lenin realized that he had made a mistake and this quote also shows that Lenin understands that the workers and farmers need an incentive to work; with an incentive the economy will grow. Lenins view of economic policies was greatly influenced by the failure of War Communism, and by the failure he was able to figure out another system that would revive Russias economy. Lenin realized that to have a successful economy the people have to have the incentive to work. Lenin also knew that if he did not improve the economic state of Russia that the Communists would not survive; War Communism took the safety net away from the Communists. Lenin had to act quickly to figure out another policy that would make the people want to work, and to revive the economy. In 1921 the NEP was created to fix the economy. Lenin created this new policy to try to burst the morale of the people and make them want to produce more grain or products. The transition form War Communism to the NEP was drastic, the people had to change there lives to fit this new, more capitalists society. Though the change to a more capitalist economy, the NEP was successful in jump starting the farming production, for example. Lenin says, Release of [surplus goods] into circulation would stimulate small farming, which is in terrible state (doc. 4) This is a great example of how Lenin realizes why he needs to change from the War Communism to the NEP, for a least one reason to increase the amount of grain produced. The creation of the NEP changed many laws that were once holding Russias economy back. Grain requisitioning was stopped. Grain was no longer taken from the peasants. Also traders could buy and sell goods, which was illegal during War Communism. Smaller factories were returned to their former owners; and they were allowed to sell the goods they made and make a profit from them. Finally larger industries like coal and steel remained under state control; but some larger factories were able to sell their products. These were some of the main differences between War Communism and NEP. During the NEP the economy prospered, because people were now allowed to keep some of the goods they made and then sell them for their own profit. This made the people want to produce more so they could have more for their family. Lenin described some of the good affects that the NEP had, he said, We have achieved much with our requisitioning system. Our food policy has made it possible in the second year to acquire three times as much grain as in the first. (doc. 2) Lenin was talking about the great increase in the production of grain, this great increase was directly related to the NEP; because the peasants could keep some of the grain they made which gave them an incentive to work hard. Communists were angry because they saw the country returning to capitalism. They did not like the fact that bosses of factories called kulacks could hire men to work for them. Also Communists disliked the Nepmen, because they made a high profit by buying goods cheaply and then selling them for more. Though the NEP revived the economy, people, especially peasants were unhappy with the new capitalist society. Lenins view of economic policies was changed through the NEP, he knew that people need the incentive to work, but he also knew he could not give the people to much economic freedom; the idea of balancing the policy of War Communism and NEP was Lenins final view of how to keep the people happy and to sustain a great economy.

Prototype of 3D Cadaster Polygonal Model

Prototype of 3D Cadaster Polygonal Model Abhijit Gujar Table of Contents 1.Introduction 1.1.Background and Justification 1.2.Literature review 1.2.1.Review on concept though and ideas 1.2.2.Review on approaches 1.3.Research problem 1.4.Research objective 1.4.1.General objective 1.4.2.Specific objective 1.5.Research questions 1.6.Research limitations 2.Research design and methods 2.1.Study area 2.2.Data 2.3.Software and hardware requirement 2.4.Research design matrix 3.Framework 3.1.Research framework 3.2.Thesis framework 3.3.Work plan framework 4.Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Background and Justification Urbanization is an inevitable part of the economic development process for any country and is considered a global phenomenon (Rigg et al., 2009) . However, it is only in recent years that the rate of urbanization has begun to accelerate. More than half of the world population is dwelling in urban area. Urbanization is one of the inevitable phenomenon right now, as the result of this there is need and growth of high rise buildings which are having many types of uses and new types of shared ownership and also underground infrastructure such as sewage, train tunnels (subway), electrical and communication network is becoming dense and complex more over multi-use of land parcel creates new problems and challenges. (Jazayeri, Rajabifard, Kalantari, 2014) Traditionally the land parcel information which includes geometric, visual and legal data is managed in 2D. It is difficult in 2D map to make simple operation such as volume of space, cannot perform various spatial analysis that is necessary in various other field of urban planning as the data is in 2D. 3D visualization for dissemination is very difficult using just the 2D data in cadaster system (Mohamed Anders, 2012). This is where the 3D cadaster comes into light.endi One of the biggest hurdle in developing the 3D cadaster is the creating the 3D building geometry representation that are suitable for 3D cadaster. Although there are CAD model available that represent the 3D blue print of the building, the real on ground situation can be different then what is on the CAD model so it is necessary to calculate the 3D measurements of actual built building. I want to research how we can create a 3D model that is suitable for 3D cadaster, one of the possible methods can be using laser scanning data. Laser scanning data has very high accuracy which is suitable for land administration needs. AHN -2 (Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland) is the project in Netherlands that aims to collect high resolution laser data of entire country (van der Sande, Soudarissanane, Khoshelham, 2010). Although AHN-2 data is accurate the point density is not enough to be able to convert it into a polygonal geometry model as the AHN-2 is taken from high altitude it covers the roof of buildings adequately but the facades of the building generally have less point density which results in anomalies. The proposed solution to take multiple images of the building from all the sides (facades) to construct a point cloud of that building, the minimum number of images required will be analyzed using techniques discussed in (Alsadik, B., Gerke, M., Vosselman, G., Daham, A., Jasim, L. ,2014), then register this point cloud with the AHN-2 point cloud then this point cloud is used to generate 3D model 1.2. Literature review This section talks about the concepts, ideas that are discussed throughout this proposal. Cadaster: Urbanization is a process by which town cities are slowly transformed from rural form to urban form 3D cadaster: Cadaster registers real status of real estate objects until now the spatial information use to register the legal status of land in two dimensional systems that is a parcel is defined by 2D juridical boundaries. 3D cadaster What is a 3D Model A 3D Model is a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional object (real or imagined) in a 3D software environment. Unlike a 2D image, 3D models can be viewed in specialized software suites from any angle, and can be scaled, rotated, or freely modified. The process of creating and shaping a 3D model is known as 3d modeling Laser scanning Laser scanning is technique of controlled deflection of laser beam visible or invisible to capture the information of target in 3D from airborne or terrestrial platform. Airborne laser scanning is carried out from aircraft while terrestrial laser scanning can be done from a stationary or moving platform. Point cloud: point cloud is a set of 3D points in the same coordinate system. Often intended to represent a external surface of an object. Point cloud file is just the set of numbers representing X, Y, Z in coordinate system. Point cloud registration: Point cloud registration is a process of merging 2 separate point cloud having different origin and into one . Stratified sampling method: Stratified is probability sampling technique in which the researcher divides the entire population into different groups and then sample is collected from equally from each group. So that the selected sample can represent the population well. 1.3. Problem statement In past recent years there has been a lot of development in 3D. Netherlands is actively promoting for participation of over 65 private, public and scientific organizations to promote the use of 3D information covering issues such as acquisition, standardization, storage and use (Elberink, Stoter, Ledoux, Commandeur, 2013). Although there are many paper that suggest different methods to extract building from point cloud I want to look into alternative way of designing a 3D model of building by combining two point cloud from different sources. 1.4. Motivation 1.5. Research objective Research objectives are divided into general objective and specific objective. General objective is overall goal of research and specific objective are the objectives that are needed to complete general objective. 1.5.1. General objective To develop and test a prototype of 3D cadaster Polygonal model of building by combing the AHN-2 data with point cloud created by multiple high quality images of the building from all the facades. 1.5.2. Specific objective To formalize a benchmark for constructing a prototype 3D modelof buildingsatisfying the requirement for 3D cadaster. To create a prototype 3D model of a building using the benchmark. To evaluate applicability of developed 3D model based on developed benchmark. 1.6. Research questions Specific objective 1: To formalize a benchmark for constructing a prototype 3D model of building satisfying the requirement for 3D cadaster. What are important feature, constrain and requirement to construct a 3D model of a building for 3D cadaster? What are the criteria of sampling buildings (e.g height, type, length, width, building complexity of structure) Specific objective 2: To create a prototype 3D model of a building using thebenchmark. Which image processing techniques are better for 3D cadaster? Which is appropriate 3D model for 3D cadaster? And why? (wireframe , surface or solid) Specific objective 3: To evaluate applicability of developed 3D model based ondeveloped benchmark. What is the strength and weakness of derived 3D model? What are the reasons of strength and weakness? How can we access the accuracy (X,Y) of the 3D model using the existing 2D cadastral database? How can we access the accuracy (Z) of the 3D model using the CAD model? What are the possible recommendations to improve developed method? 1.7. Research limitations The current research limits extracting the model of building from the exterior of the building and does not covers the interior design and structure of the building. 2. Research design and methods In this section briefly describes the how the research will attempt to accomplish the formulated research questions. It includes the description of study area, people, data requirement, software to be used, proposed workflow/methodology. 2.1. Study area Study area for this project is Enschede. Results from the specific objective one will be used to select sample building of different type, height, volume so that it can represent the building population well. 2.2. Data Data description Data use Data source Airborne laser data for study area To create model PDOK Images of building taken from all the sides For Image base modeling field work CAD model of the building To assess accuracy (z) of developed model Cadaster, Netherlands. 2D Cadastral data of the selected buildings To assess accuracy (x,y) of developed model Cadaster, Netherlands. 2.3. Software and hardware requirement Software / Hardware Use/ application PCM Point cloud segmentation, manipulation and visual interpretation ImageModeler To convert point cloud to 3D model Matlab Coordinate system transformation 3DF Samantha AutoCAD CAD model analysis Endnote Reference management Microsoft Word Thesis preparation Professional camera To capture building images 2.4. Research design matrix Research Sub-Objective Research Question Research Method Required input data Anticipated Output To determine important factors for constructing 3D model ofbuilding satisfying the requirement for 3D cadaster. What are important feature, constrain and requirement to construct a 3D model of a building for 3D cadaster? Literature review, expert consultation, Case study, previous research papers, Case study, Literature, research paper, sample data from cadaster. List of important characteristics/functions/ features. In order to select the buildings for modeling, what are the parameters of sampling (selection)? Stratified sampling method Building type database Selection of types of building to study for modeling To create a prototype 3D model of a building. How can we create a point cloud from the images of building? Literature review, expert consultation, Case study, previous research papers High quality images of the building from all facades. Point cloud data How can we filter unwanted data (noise) from both of the point cloud? Literature review, expert consultation, Case study, previous research papers Two point cloud from previous objective Noise free point cloud How can we create a 3D model of building from point cloud? Literature review, expert consultation, Case study, previous research papers Noise free point cloud 3D model of a building To evaluate applicability of developed 3D model in context of 3D cadaster standards derived from objective one. What is the strength and weakness of derived 3D model? What are the reasons of strength and weakness? Comparison with the result derived from first objective. Visual and statistical analysis. Output from the first objective. Output from second objective. A summarizing list of strength and weakness of the derived output, discussion, conclusion and recommendation. How can we access the accuracy (X,Y) of the 3D model using the existing 2D Kadastral database? Output from second objective. Database for that specific building from Kadaster Table of accuracy analysis. How can we access the accuracy (Z) of the 3D model using the CAD model? Output from second objective. CAD model of same building 3. Framework Framework is structure to organize concepts or steps of the research process for better communication with intended readers. 3.1. Research framework Research framework will depict the overall structure and sequence of the major activities, task within each activity are of equal importance and cannot be skipped. Figure 2: Research Framework 3.2. Thesis framework Thesis framework describes and introduces the chapters that will be included in the main thesis. Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter one offers the justification background of research it also discusses the research problem, research objective, research questions, any previous work done related to this research Chapter 2: Literature Review and concepts Chapter two will go more deep into the concepts and the terms their meaning.Various terminology used in research. Chapter 3: 3D Cadaster In this chapter we will talk about what is 3D cadaster? Why it is useful? Which countries are implementing/ implemented 3D cadaster? How these countries have implemented it? Chapter 6: Field work This chapter discuses about the pre field work and field work . Chapter 5: Source of 3D data In this chapter we will discuss about the various sources of the 3d data that are available in Netherlands. We will compare the advantages and disadvantages of each one. Chapter 6: Technique of modeling In this chapter we will discuss about the various methods, procedure, software’s, algorithms related to 3D modeling. Chapter 7: Accuracy assessment In this chapter we will discuss technique and method of analysis and comparison of the derived model with the benchmark that we obtained from the first objective of research. Chapter 8: Prototype In this chapter we will display the obtained results and then will discuss the finding of the prototype. Chapter 9: Conclusion and Recommendation This chapter consists of the conclusion derived from the results and recommendation for further improvement. 3.3. Work plan framework Work plan framework depicts the activity and time allocated for each activity. Table 1: Work Plan 4. Reference Elberink, S. O., Stoter, J., Ledoux, H., Commandeur, T. (2013). Generation and Dissemination of a National Virtual 3D City and Landscape Model for the Netherlands. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 79(2), 147-158. Jazayeri, I., Rajabifard, A., Kalantari, M. (2014). A geometric and semantic evaluation of 3D data sourcing methods for land and property information. Land Use Policy, 36(0), 219-230. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.08.004 Mohamed, E.-M., Anders, Ãâ€". (2012). Feasibility of Building Information Models for 3D Cadastre in Unified City Models. International Journal of E-Planning Research (IJEPR), 1(4), 35-58. doi: 10.4018/ijepr.2012100103 van der Sande, C., Soudarissanane, S., Khoshelham, K. (2010). Assessment of Relative Accuracy of AHN-2 Laser Scanning Data Using Planar Features. Sensors, 10(9), 8198-8214. doi: 10.3390/s100908198 Rigg, J., Bebbington, A., Gough, K. V, Bryceson, D. F., Agergaard, J., Fold, N., Tacoli, C. (2009). The World Development Report 2009 â€Å"reshapes economic geography†: geographical reflections. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 34(2), 128–136. doi:10.1111/j.1475-5661.2009.00340.x FACULTY OF GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION – UNIVERSITY OF TWENTE

Brood Parasitism of the Common Cuckoo

Brood Parasitism of the Common Cuckoo Brood parasitism by the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus has excited wonder, interest and speculation like few other bird behaviors. Its a species which had been studied and observed well before Darwins time, generating a wealth of information that has provided a deeper understanding of interactions among species. However, recent studies are bringing up more details of the coevolutionary relationship between the cuckoo and its hosts. The aim of this paper is threefold: to provide a concise review of the evolution of brood parasitism in the common cuckoo, to outline the different strategies that host species have evolved to deter parasitism, and to identify some of the counteradaptations the cuckoo has developed against those strategies. Introduction The extraordinary plasticity in breeding behavior of the family Cuculidae has no parallel among the worlds bird families. Of the 136 species of cuckoos, 83 provide parental care while 53 species parasitize nests, where eggs are incubated and parasites young are raised by a host species [1]. Of those 53 parasitic species, the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus (hereafter, cuckoo) is the most widespread in Europe, inhabiting a diverse array of habitats and having at least 15 different host-specific races [2]. Throughout history the cuckoo has attracted a wealth of attention and generated much fascination. In the fourth century BC, Aristotle accurately described the parasitic habits of the cuckoo, noting that the nestling cuckoo ejects the hosts eggs or young, casting out of the nest those with whom it has so far lived [3]. Despite these very early accounts of the cuckoos breeding behavior, it was not until the 1700s that cuckoos biology regained attention by scientists. However, the cuckoo literature generated prior to the mid-twentieth century was a mix of speculative observations and misconceptions. For instance, well into the 1750s it was thought that the female cuckoo upon laying the egg will carry it with her beak to the hosts nest [3]. Such an idea was mistakenly reinforced by observing cuckoo females carrying an egg, which later was proven to be the hosts eggs, but assuming it was the cuckoos egg [3]. This idea was later rejected by British physician Edward Jenner whose accurate observations led to the current description of the cuckoos parasitism [3]. Generally, cuckoos lay a single egg in a host nest. Upon hatching, the young cuckoo pushes out the host nestlings, and any unhatched eggs. The cuckoo nestling then demands undivided care from its hosts with an extraordinary begging display, which consists of bright orange gape and rapid calls to simulate several nestlings [4]. Evolution of cuckoo parasitism It was Charles Darwin who first intended attended to explain the evolution of brood parasitism in European cuckoos. In The Origin of Species Darwin described an example of brood parasitism by an American cuckoo species. The cuckoo was reared by a Blue Jay Cyanocitta cristata until it fledged the nest. This observation led Darwin to suggest that brood parasitism has evolved through a repetitive process in nature in which the young cuckoo inherits its mothers parasitic habits due to advantages gain in survival [3]. Darwin proposed that cuckoo parasitism evolved from parental cuckoos and phylogeny studies have supported his view. However, there is no consensus on how brood parasitism evolved. Taxonomists suggest that brood parasitism evolved as a separate event in two subfamilies of brood parasites, independently, the Old World Cuculinae and the New World Neomorphinae [1]. On the other hand, a phylogeny study based on bone characteristics suggests that brood parasitism evolved as a sing le event in the family, placing Cuculinae and Neomorphinae together, while the genus Coccyzus found in the New World, re-evolved parental care from a parasitic ancestor [1]. Yet another study on molecular phylogeny proposes three independent origins of brood parasitism, in genus Clamator, and other cuckoos of the Old World and cuckoos in the American continent [5]. Avian brood parasitism between distinct species is currently thought to have evolved from an ancestral line with parental care breeding or as an indirect consequence of brood parasitism between conspecifics [3]. However, while the argument still exists over which of the the two pathways leads to the parasitism of other species nests, there is greater support for the evolution of parasitism from a normal breeding behavior [1,3]. It is considered that the ancestral form of modern day cuckoos probably was a parental care, non-migratory inhabitant of tropical forest, and that changes in habitat, migration patterns, range size and foraging provoked the evolution of brood parasitism as a way to reduce order the cost of reproduction [1.3]. When comparing energy expenditure on reproduction, it was estimated that a parasitic cuckoo spends half the amount of energy of a parental cuckoo in achieving comparable reproductive success[1]. In fact, within the Cuculidae family there are important dis similarities between species with parental care and brood parasites. Cuckoos have a lower body mass, lay smaller eggs, and feed on prey of lesser size. [1]. In the comparative analysis done by Krà ¼ger and Davies (2002), it was concluded that the evolution of cuckoo parasitism was the result of changes in the ecology of a parental ancestor and that once a parasitic behavior was adapted further specializations occurred. a. From raising your own offspring to be a brood parasite Before brood parasitism evolved, there were key changes in the ecology and behavior of forest cuckoos. Initially, forest cuckoos expanded their range to include more open and seasonal habitats. This habitat expansion provoked a more migratory behavior, an increase in breeding-range size and the availability of new food sources [1]. These changes in ecology required a reduction in energy invested in reproduction. When comparing energy expenditure on reproduction, it was estimated that a parasitic cuckoo spends half the amount of energy of a parental cuckoo in achieving comparable reproductive success[1]. Therefore, selection for brood parasitism became the emerging consequence of the ecological changes mentioned above. b. Brood parasitism caused the evolution of specialized parasitic adaptations Upon the adaptation of obligated brood parasitism, cuckoo eggs became smaller. Kruger and Davies (2002) suggest two hypotheses for the reduction in egg size. First, parasitic cuckoos were able to increase clutch size which may have been possible upon the reduction of overall egg size. Since most hosts are smaller than their parasitic cuckoos, an adaptation to a decrease in egg size would have been selected in order to avoid host rejection while improving incubation efficiency. A preference for smaller hosts increases the number of egg-laying opportunities since there is a greater abundance of smaller species than larger ones [1] . An adaptation to a parasitic behavior might have also freed the cuckoo of the diet restraint when selecting breeding habitat. By relying on the host parental care, cuckoos are able to exploit a diversity of breeding habitats for breeding even those habitat where adult cuckoos cannot forage. Kruger and Davies (2002) note that some common cuckoos are required to travel large distances when breeding in marshlands while foraging in woodland areas. This independence from breeding habitat restraints have enabled the common cuckoo to increase its range through Europe. Factors that affect brood parasitism by the Common Cuckoo The size of the host and its abundance is an important predictor of host parasitism [3]. There is a greater diversity and abundance of small bird species; which provides the cuckoo a larger pool of possible hosts. The density of the cuckoo at a given area also plays a crucial role. It was found that rejection rate increase as the rate of parasitism goes up in a given area [6]. A greater density of female cuckoos at the breeding area of the selected hosts increases the chances that the hosts see a cuckoo female and proceed with egg rejection or nest desertion [6]. This might be one of the multiple explanations for the fact that cuckoos are more widespread and their breeding-range is significantly larger than parental species of the same family. Additionally the choice of nesting site affects brood parasitism. Nests located nearby trees have a significant increase on the risk of being parasitized [7]. Female cuckoos perch on trees to gather information on the hosts nest building activi ty and therefore the availability of visual points are crucial for the cuckoo to determine hosts nest location [7]. Therefore, it is expected of the cuckoos hosts to show a high degree of plasticity in choice of nest site in order to decrease the distance to visual vantage point and to increase nest concealment [7]. Interestingly, female cuckoos seem to gather cues from the host behavior not only to determine nest location but also to reveal the hosts parental capacities. Males that sing more actively during breeding season tend to attract females that built larger nests. It was found that in great reed warblers Acrocephalus arundinaceous nestlings raise in larger nests receive more feeding than those in a small nest [8]. It will be expected to see a larger rate of parasitism in hosts that are more vocal and active during nest construction. However, it was found that hosts with a high degree of signal expression nearby the nest are also more eager to defend the nest against intruder s and to reject cuckoo eggs. Therefore, cuckoos may favor a host with a smaller nest and whose activity is less visually conspicuous [8]. Polacikova et al. (2009) also found that great reed warblers affected by cuckoo parasitism have higher body condition than individuals freed of parasitism. Additionally, females hosts had higher body mass and presented less uniformity in egg coloration [9] Host defensive strategies against cuckoos parasitism Brood parasitism by the cuckoo brings multiple costs to the host [2]. The primary cost is the loss of an egg once the female cuckoo lays hers. Additionally, rejection requires the expense of energy and time (for recognition) and it includes the risk of discriminating the hosts own eggs. By accepting the cuckoos egg the reproductive success of the host is then jeopardize since upon hatching the young cuckoo pushes out the hosts nestlings [4]. Furthermore, the host parents must raise a much larger chick which demands more food than the hosts own nestlings. This costly is highly increased in the extraordinary case when the host and cuckoo nestlings grow up together like in the parasitism of the Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus [2]. Due to the multiple costs associated with brood parasitism, many host species have evolved adaptations to cope with parasitism; such as egg rejection and nest desertion [10]. However, these adaptations only partially offset the costs of parasitism since they take place once the nest has been already parasitized. Therefore, some host species have also evolved adaptations to eliminate laying opportunities for the cuckoo. Nesting in safe places, constructing well hidden nests, or an active protection of the nest from intrusions are example of adaptations that host species have evolved to avoid being parasitized [10,11]. Mobbing behavior The reed warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus is one of the species most readily selected by cuckoos as host for their eggs and therefore has evolved adaptations that demonstrate a coevolutionary arms race with the common cuckoo [12,13]. Mobbing, the attacking or harassing of cuckoos by reed warblers has been determined to be an effective first line of defense against parasitism [12]. It has been well documented that reed warbler use audible and visual displays that in occasion lead to direct physical attacks to dissuade parasitism. Such defensive behavior reduces the probability of parasitism and it is a direct cost to cuckoos which might lose feathers or suffer injuries during physical attacks by reed warblers [12]. Additionally, mobbing attracts predators, and other brood parasites thus posing an indirect cost since the cuckoo or its eggs might be at risk of predation [12]. The costs inflicted on the cuckoo can also be associated to the costs suffer by the reed warbler that mob brood p arasites. First of all, there is a physical similarity between common cuckoos and sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus [10], a potential predator of reed warblers. Therefore, reed warblers may need to spend time to identify the type of threat, parasitism or predation, before engaging in a mobbing display [12]. In addition, the same indirect costs that mobbing brings to the cuckoo are also to the reed warbler which unknowingly might be attracting more parasites and predators to the nesting area [12]. Therefore, the costs inflicted on the host select for a defensive behavior that discriminates between the type of threat and the degree of parasitism [12]. Although some passerine birds will mob a possible predators, nesting adult reed warbler have not been observed doing it. Welbergen and Davies (2008) note that adult reed warblers seek cover and remain silent in the presence of a sparrowhawk near the nest [10]. Since sparrowhawks are a direct threat to the adults while cuckoos are to the nest, it makes sense that reed warblers mob the latter and not the former [12]. Reed warblers also show plasticity in their mobbing behavior in terms of risk of nest parasitism. In areas where there is a higher probability that the cuckoos are able to find hosts nest, mobbing is the best strategy, while in areas with a low probability the best defensive method may be to avoid active and visible displays and remain hidden but alert [12]. By presenting reed warblers with taxidermic mounts of cuckoos, Welbergen and Davies (2009) concluded that mobbing is an adapted, phenotypically trait with high plasticity in the defense against parasitism [12]. Alarms Calls and Nest Guarding It was previously noted that cuckoos and sparrowhawks share a resemblance that might pose a challenge for reed warblers in their nest defensive strategies. However, reed warblers have shown to vary their auditory displays accordingly to the kinds of danger and the subsequent response by conspecifics [10]. Welbergen and Davies (2008) showed that reed warblers are able to identify cuckoos from sparrowhawks with alarm calls that attract not only mates but nearby neighbors. The alarms signals by reed warblers in the presence of a cuckoo are characterized by rasps and snaps. Rasps have a sharp commencement and a wide frequency range, which are important features that enable the location of the emitter [10]. Alarms calls therefore are an important communal defensive mechanism against parasitism. Nest attendance and egg rejection by reed warblers might increase due to the information provided by the alarm calls emitted by neighbor conspecifics [10]. Additionally, alerting on the presence of cuckoos might trigger the mobbing of the parasite by multiple reed warblers which could eject the cuckoo. Nest guarding has also been identified as a defensive strategy against parasitism. However, it is more passive and less conspicuous than mobbing and alarm displaying [11]. An increase in nest guarding has been observed after laying has begun and is usually done by the male. This behavior might able the reed warblers to gain information about cuckoos presence and chance of parasitism. Spotting a cuckoo before laying has begun might trigger nest desertion whereas the sighting of a cuckoo once laying commences might increase the likelihood of rejection of the cuckoos egg [11]. Egg rejection Hosts species have evolved two mechanisms in order to eject cuckoo eggs. In the case of hosts with large beaks, the eggs are grasped and evicted out of the nest while species unable to grasp the egg, puncture and then eject the parasites egg [14]. The reproductive success is minimal if a host accepts a cuckoo egg due to the innate behavior of the cuckoo nestling of evicting hosts eggs and nestlings. Therefore, species parasitized by cuckoos should strongly select for an ejection adaptation to parasitism if the host is physically able of ejecting cuckoo eggs [14]. For those species whose beak is too small to grasp the beak and that puncturing the egg would be too costly or impossible, nest desertion is the strategy selected once parasitism has been identified [14,15]. The cost to the hosts when trying to puncture cuckoo eggs has been demonstrated in marsh warblers Acrocephalus palustris which after unsuccessfully attempting to puncture the eggs have damaged their own eggs [15]. Cuckoos Responses to Overcome Hosts Adaptations Cuckoo parasitism has led to the selection of defense mechanisms by the hosts. At the same time, in this coevolutionary arms race, more sophisticated trickeries are selected by the cucook [1,16]. Egg mimicry and vocal mimicry by the nestlings are of the most significant traits evolved in the cuckoo to cope with hosts defensive responses. Egg Mimicry The recognition and ejection of cuckoo eggs have selected for an increase in mimicry of the host egg by the cuckoo whose eggs display a high variability in color and/or spotting due to the diverse number of hosts it parasitizes [16]. In a reed warbler study of parasitism by the common cuckoo, Avilà ©s et al. (2006) found the surprising speed in which egg similarity between the two species evolved in recently parasympatric poputions of reed warblers and cuckoos. Using museum egg collections, it was found that in 23 years, the degree of egg matching increase considerably [16]. Avilà ©s et al. note this rapid improvement egg matching a micro-evolutionary response to host removal of eggs differing in color or size and that egg mimicry has coevolved with this rejection behaviour [16]. The importance of egg mimicry was exemplified by Antonov et al. (2008) on a study of cuckoo egg rejection by marsh warblers. On the study, unmanipulated cuckoo eggs were accepted more readily than painted cuckoo and great reed warbler eggs placed in marsh warbler nests [15]. The aim of the Antnovo et al. was to determine the importance of egg shell strength in deterring egg rejection. However, since painted cuckoo eggs suffered a higher rejection rate, it was indicated that egg mimicry is pivotal in determining the probability of rejection [15]. Vocal or Visual Mimicry by Parasite Nestlings Brood parasites can be differentiated into two categories: Nonevictors which are parasites that grow up alongside the hosts young and evictors in which the young parasite either kills the hosts nestlings or expels them out of the nest along with any unhatched eggs [17]. Nonevictor species include the brown-headed cowbird, Molothrus ater, finches of the Vidua genus and great spotted cuckoo, Clamator glandarius. While the common cuckoo is a evictor brood parasite. Nonevictors showed certain mimicry of the host chicks as a counteradaptation against the host adult learning of the characteristics of the chicks during first brood. These imprinting of its own chicks characteristics will later permit the rejection of chicks that are different [17]. For example, Vidua finch young show great resemblance of the mouth spot patterns of their hosts chicks [17]. On the other hand, this adaptation has not been selected in hosts of evictor parasites. Since the cuckoo nestling is raised alone, imprint ing the characteristics of the parasite chick will be detrimental to future broods [17]. Butchart et al. (2003) found that the begging calls produced by four different common cuckoo races did not differ which lead to the conclusion that in evictor species there is not selection for evolution of visual or vocal mimicry by the parasite chick [17]. However, it should be advantageous for the cuckoo nestling to respond to the host alarm calls given in the presence of a predator [18]. Davies et al. (2006) concluded that cuckoos that specialize on reed warblers have not only well-matched eggs but also chicks that are well-tuned to the hosts alarm calls [18]. Summary Coevolution relationship among species are significant in order to understand how species select for adaptations accordingly to the other species. In the case of brood parasitism by the common cuckoo, that relationship is truly an arms race. For instance, egg rejection lead to egg mimicry which in turn might lead to clutch variability in the host. However, before egg rejection is selected, hosts have evolved a first line of defense that includes direct confrontation against the parasite. The costs of parasitism are evident for the host species but also the parasite carries its own costs. As a relation observed well before Darwin and his theory of evolution, the cuckoo-host interaction was provided with a solid framework to be better study and understood once Darwins work became public. However, necessity for further research remains. There is limited work on the biology and ecology of cuckoo nestlings. Also there is still no detailed explanations on the failure of hosts to recognized cuckoos young as a different species [3]. Furthermore, as anthropogenic actions change natural ecosystems at a rapid scale, further research is needed in the relationship between cuckoos and hosts and the factors affected by habitat alterations. [7].

Hume on Revolution :: Government Politics Papers

Hume on Revolution David Hume offers a well conceived plan for the formation of government and its political workings. Furthermore, he grants that in special circumstances the citizens of a particular government may revolt. However, with respect to obedience and disloyalty, Hume gives no formal rules for revolution. We would like something more from Hume regarding revolution and, more specifically, what he considers justified revolution. Some authors, such as Richard H. Dees, find the basis for Hume’s account of justified revolution in his historical works. By connecting Hume’s historical writings with his political theory, we find a fuller account of revolution. Such an account, however, does not require him to give a rule or maxim prescribing revolution since such a rule or maxim would obviously go against his political theory as stated in the Treatise and his political essays. In sum, justified revolution for Hume centers around the established political practices and the principled ca uses held by factions. Unjustified revolutions, however, are denoted by lack of adherence to established practices and want of a genuine cause. They are, rather, motivated by speculative factions subject to fanaticism and enthusiasm which are the foundations of Hume’s political worries. These central tenets of Hume’s view of revolution are delineated within this paper. Introductory Remarks In "Of Passive Obedience," Hume chastises those who endorse at length the maxims of resistance. Disloyal acts are considered to be immoral because they strike us as being contrary to preserving order in society. The desire to preserve peace and order in society, for self-interest, motivates people to obey authority. We are, thus, to regard disobedience towards authority as something to be avoided. Hume writes, Besides; we must consider, that, as obedience is our duty in the common course of things, it ought chiefly to be inculcated; nor can any thing be more preposterous than an anxious care and solicitude in stating all the cases, in which resistance may be allowed.(1) For Hume, it is of major importance and consequence that obedience is taught and demonstrated for its benefits. First of all, liberty and commerce depend on obligation to promises. Secondly, submission to government is necessary for the performance of promises. Disobedience and revolution put both of these advantageous in jeopardy. Hume, however, in his explanation of the formation of government claims that government can be overthrown in times of egregious tyranny. To be sure, Hume had admittedly agreed with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and sympathized with the American colonial situation but he finds too much liberty of resistance pernicious.

Shakespeares Othello - Iago as Good Strategician and Lucky Opportunist

Iago - Good Strategician and Lucky Opportunist      Ã‚  Ã‚   Like with many evil personalities in history and literature the question is always asked did he really plan to make this happen or was it just luck and convenient circumstances, was it intentional or just circumstantial. To determine how good Iago really is at plotting and whether it is really his own influence or just lucky circumstances that cause events I will examine his asides, soliloquies and interaction with key characters because they give an extra insight into his character.    In the first scene we are thrown right into the action with the argument between Iago and Roderigo. This first argument shows us how Iago is cunning and sly because he has already manipulated a weak Roderigo into paying him for something he hasn't even done yet. Roderigo who is obviously weak and simple has asked Iago to help him woo Desdemona in exchange for money, he thinks Iago has not done this because Desdemona is now at this moment marrying the moor. Yet Iago manages to convince Roderigo of his sheer hatred for Othello and swindle him out of his money. As he later exerts in his soliloquy at the end of Act I.3   ' thus do I ever make my fool my purse' this shows his attitude to Roderigo he is just money for Iago a pawn in his plan. This attitude shows how to a certain extent Iago primes the character he will use later in his plan showing a consistent strategy, he knows he can use Roderigo in the future so keeps him on his side instead of being rude and sharp with h im. You can see that Iago finds Roderigo tedious but keeps him a friend for his money and possible use in the future.    As he goes on to speak he shows his jealousy and frustration, which ... ... still no closer to finding out. Similarly with Iago there is no doubt that he is intelligent and quick-witted and his bitterness and jealousy fuels his plans but to an extent the circumstances played as big a role as the character. Shakespeare created Iago and the circumstances because they reacted well together and made an interesting and exciting plot. So I believe it is fair to say that Iago, as a character is both a good strategician and a lucky opportunist in equal measures.    Works Consulted: Muir, Kenneth. Introduction. William Shakespeare: Othello. New York: Penguin Books, 1968. Shakespeare, William. "The Tragedy of Othello the Moor of Venice" The Norton Shakespeare. Ed. Stanley Wells & |Gary Taylor. New York/London, W.W. Norton Company,1997. 2100-2174 Wain, John. Shakespeare's Othello - A Casebook. London: MacMillan Press. 1994

The Lost Symbol Chapter 122-126

CHAPTER 122 The secret is how to die. Mal'akh knew it had all gone wrong. There was no brilliant light. No wondrous reception. Only darkness and excruciating pain. Even in his eyes. He could see nothing, and yet he sensed movement all around him. There were voices . . . human voices . . . one of them, strangely, belonging to Robert Langdon. How can this be? â€Å"She's okay,† Langdon kept repeating. â€Å"Katherine is fine, Peter. Your sister is okay.† No, Mal'akh thought. Katherine is dead. She must be. Mal'akh could no longer see, could not tell if his eyes were even open, but he heard the helicopter banking away. An abrupt calm settled through the Temple Room. Mal'akh could feel the smooth rhythms of the earth becoming uneven . . . as if the ocean's natural tides were being disrupted by a gathering storm. Chao ab ordo. Unfamiliar voices were shouting now, talking urgently with Langdon about the laptop and video file. It's too late, Mal'akh knew. The damage is done. By now the video was spreading like wildfire into every corner of a shocked world, destroying the future of the brotherhood. Those most capable of spreading the wisdom must be destroyed. The ignorance of mankind is what helped the chaos grow. The absence of Light on earth is what nourished the Darkness that awaited Mal'akh. I have done great deeds, and soon I will be received as a king. Mal'akh sensed that a lone individual had quietly approached. He knew who it was. He could smell the sacred oils he had rubbed into his father's shaved body. â€Å"I don't know if you can hear me,† Peter Solomon whispered in his ear. â€Å"But I want you to know something.† He touched a finger to the sacred spot atop Mal'akh's skull. â€Å"What you wrote here . . .† He paused. â€Å"This is not the Lost Word.† Of course it is, Mal'akh thought. You convinced me of that beyond a doubt. According to legend, the Lost Word was written in a language so ancient and arcane that mankind had all but forgotten how to read it. This mysterious language, Peter had revealed, was in fact the oldest language on earth. The language of symbols. In the idiom of symbology, there was one symbol that reigned supreme above all others. The oldest and most universal, this symbol fused all the ancient traditions in a single solitary image that represented the illumination of the Egyptian sun god, the triumph of alchemical gold, the wisdom of the Philosopher's Stone, the purity of the Rosicrucian Rose, the moment of Creation, the All, the dominance of the astrological sun, and even the omniscient all-seeing eye that hovered atop the unfinished pyramid. The circumpunct. The symbol of the Source. The origin of all things. This is what Peter had told him moments ago. Mal'akh had been skeptical at first, but then he had looked again at the grid, realizing that the image of the pyramid was pointing directly at the lone symbol of the circumpunct–a circle with a dot in its center. The Masonic Pyramid is a map, he thought, recalling the legend, which points to the Lost Word. It seemed his father was telling the truth after all. All great truths are simple. The Lost Word is not a word . . . it is a symbol. Eagerly, Mal'akh had inscribed the great symbol of the circumpunct on his scalp. As he did so, he felt an upwelling of power and satisfaction. My masterpiece and offering are complete. The forces of darkness were waiting for him now. He would be rewarded for his work. This was to be his moment of glory . . . And yet, at the last instant, everything had gone horribly wrong. Peter was still behind him now, speaking words that Mal'akh could barely fathom. â€Å"I lied to you,† he was saying. â€Å"You left me no choice. If I had revealed to you the true Lost Word, you would not have believed me, nor would you have understood.† The Lost Word is . . . not the circumpunct? â€Å"The truth is,† said Peter, â€Å"the Lost Word is known to all . . . but recognized by very few.† The words echoed in Mal'akh's mind. â€Å"You remain incomplete,† Peter said, gently placing his palm on top of Mal'akh's head. â€Å"Your work is not yet done. But wherever you are going, please know this . . . you were loved.† For some reason, the gentle touch of his father's hand felt like it was burning through him like a potent catalyst that was initiating a chemical reaction inside Mal'akh's body. Without warning, he felt a rush of blistering energy surging through his physical shell, as if every cell in his body were now dissolving. In an instant, all of his worldly pain evaporated. Transformation. It's happening. I am gazing down upon myself, a wreck of bloody flesh on the sacred slab of granite. My father is kneeling behind me, holding my lifeless head with his one remaining hand. I feel an upwelling of rage . . . and confusion. This is not a moment for compassion . . . it is for revenge, for transformation . . . and yet still my father refuses to submit, refuses to fulfill his role, refuses to channel his pain and anger through the knife blade and into my heart. I am trapped here, hovering . . . tethered to my earthly shell. My father gently runs a soft palm across my face to close my fading eyes. I feel the tether release. A billowing veil materializes around me, thickening and dimming the light, hiding the world from view. Suddenly time accelerates, and I am plunging into an abyss far darker than any I have ever imagined. Here, in the barren void, I hear a whispering . . . I sense a gathering force. It strengthens, mounting at a startling rate, surrounding me. Ominous and powerful. Dark and commanding. I am not alone here. This is my triumph, my grand reception. And yet, for some reason, I am filled not with joy, but rather with boundless fear. It is nothing like I expect. The force is churning now, swirling around me with commanding strength, threatening to tear me apart. Suddenly, without warning, the blackness gathers itself like a great prehistoric beast and rears up before me. I am facing all the dark souls who have gone before. I am screaming in infinite terror . . . as the darkness swallows me whole. CHAPTER 123 Inside the National Cathedral, Dean Galloway sensed a strange change in the air. He was not sure why, but he felt as if a ghostly shadow had evaporated . . . as if a weight had been lifted . . . far away and yet right here. Alone at his desk, he was deep in thought. He was not sure how many minutes had passed when his phone rang. It was Warren Bellamy. â€Å"Peter's alive,† his Masonic brother said. â€Å"I just heard the news. I knew you'd want to know immediately. He's going to be okay.† â€Å"Thank God.† Galloway exhaled. â€Å"Where is he?† Galloway listened as Bellamy recounted the extraordinary tale of what had transpired after they had left Cathedral College. â€Å"But all of you are okay?† â€Å"Recuperating, yes,† Bellamy said. â€Å"There is one thing, though.† He paused. â€Å"Yes?† â€Å"The Masonic Pyramid . . . I think Langdon may have solved it.† Galloway had to smile. Somehow he was not surprised. â€Å"And tell me, did Langdon discover whether or not the pyramid kept its promise? Whether or not it revealed what legend always claimed it would reveal?† â€Å"I don't know yet.† It will, Galloway thought. â€Å"You need to rest.† â€Å"As do you.† No, I need to pray. CHAPTER 124 When the elevator door opened, the lights in the Temple Room were all ablaze. Katherine Solomon's legs still felt rubbery as she hurried in to find her brother. The air in this enormous chamber was cold and smelled of incense. The scene that greeted her stopped her in her tracks. In the center of this magnificent room, on a low stone altar, lay a bloody, tattooed corpse, a body perforated by spears of broken glass. High above, a gaping hole in the ceiling opened to the heavens. My God. Katherine immediately looked away, her eyes scanning for Peter. She found her brother sitting on the other side of the room, being tended to by a medic while talking with Langdon and Director Sato. â€Å"Peter!† Katherine called, running over. â€Å"Peter!† Her brother glanced up, his expression filling with relief. He was on his feet at once, moving toward her. He was wearing a simple white shirt and dark slacks, which someone had probably gotten for him from his office downstairs. His right arm was in a sling, and their gentle embrace was awkward, but Katherine barely noticed. A familiar comfort surrounded her like a cocoon, as it always had, even in childhood, when her protective older brother embraced her. They held each other in silence. Finally Katherine whispered, â€Å"Are you okay? I mean . . . really?† She released him, looking down at the sling and bandage where his right hand used to be. Tears welled again in her eyes. â€Å"I'm so . . . so sorry.† Peter shrugged as if it were nothing of consequence. â€Å"Mortal flesh. Bodies don't last forever. The important thing is that you're okay.† Peter's lighthearted response tore at her emotions, reminding her of all the reasons she loved him. She stroked his head, feeling the unbreakable bonds of family . . . the shared blood that flowed in their veins. Tragically, she knew there was a third Solomon in the room tonight. The corpse on the altar drew her gaze, and Katherine shuddered deeply, trying to block out the photos she had seen. She looked away, her eyes now finding Robert Langdon's. There was compassion there, deep and perceptive, as if Langdon somehow knew exactly what she was thinking. Peter knows. Raw emotion gripped Katherine–relief, sympathy, despair. She felt her brother's body begin trembling like a child's. It was something she had never witnessed in her entire life. â€Å"Just let it go,† she whispered. â€Å"It's okay. Just let it go.† Peter's trembling grew deeper. She held him again, stroking the back of his head. â€Å"Peter, you've always been the strong one . . . you've always been there for me. But I'm here for you now. It's okay. I'm right here.† Katherine eased his head gently onto her shoulder . . . and the great Peter Solomon collapsed sobbing in her arms. Director Sato stepped away to take an incoming call. It was Nola Kaye. Her news, for a change, was good. â€Å"Still no signs of distribution, ma'am.† She sounded hopeful. â€Å"I'm confident we would have seen something by now. It looks like you contained it.† Thanks to you, Nola, Sato thought, glancing down at the laptop, which Langdon had seen complete its transmission. A very close call. At Nola's suggestion, the agent searching the mansion had checked the garbage cans, discovering packaging for a newly purchased cellular modem. With the exact model number, Nola had been able to cross-reference compatible carriers, bandwidths, and service grids, isolating the laptop's most likely access node–a small transmitter on the corner of Sixteenth and Corcoran–three blocks from the Temple. Nola quickly relayed the information to Sato in the helicopter. On approach toward the House of the Temple, the pilot had performed a low-altitude flyover and pulsed the relay node with a blast of electromagnetic radiation, knocking it off-line only seconds before the laptop completed its transfer. â€Å"Great work tonight,† Sato said. â€Å"Now get some sleep. You've earned it.† â€Å"Thank you, ma'am.† Nola hesitated. â€Å"Was there something else?† Nola was silent a long moment, apparently considering whether or not to speak. â€Å"Nothing that can't wait till morning, ma'am. Have a good night.† CHAPTER 125 In the silence of an elegant bathroom on the ground floor of the House of the Temple, Robert Langdon ran warm water into a tile sink and eyed himself in the mirror. Even in the muted light, he looked like he felt . . . utterly spent. His daybag was on his shoulder again, much lighter now . . . empty except for his personal items and some crumpled lecture notes. He had to chuckle. His visit to D.C. tonight to give a lecture had turned out a bit more grueling than he'd anticipated. Even so, Langdon had a lot to be grateful for. Peter is alive. And the video was contained. As Langdon scooped handfuls of warm water onto his face, he gradually felt himself coming back to life. Everything was still a blur, but the adrenaline in his body was finally dissipating . . . and he was feeling like himself again. After drying his hands, he checked his Mickey Mouse watch. My God, it's late. Langdon exited the bathroom and wound his way along the curved wall of the Hall of Honor–a gracefully arched passageway, lined with portraits of accomplished Masons . . . U.S. presidents, philanthropists, luminaries, and other influential Americans. He paused at an oil painting of Harry S. Truman and tried to imagine the man undergoing the rites, rituals, and studies required to become a Mason. There is a hidden world behind the one we all see. For all of us. â€Å"You slipped away,† a voice said down the hall. Langdon turned. It was Katherine. She'd been through hell tonight, and yet she looked suddenly radiant . . . rejuvenated somehow. Langdon gave a tired smile. â€Å"How's he doing?† Katherine walked up and embraced him warmly. â€Å"How can I ever thank you?† He laughed. â€Å"You know I didn't do anything, right?† Katherine held him for a long time. â€Å"Peter's going to be fine . . .† She let go and looked deep into Langdon's eyes. â€Å"And he just told me something incredible . . . something wonderful.† Her voice trembled with anticipation. â€Å"I need to go see it for myself. I'll be back in a bit.† â€Å"What? Where are you going?† â€Å"I won't be long. Right now, Peter wants to speak with you . . . alone. He's waiting in the library.† â€Å"Did he say why?† Katherine chuckled and shook her head. â€Å"You know Peter and his secrets.† â€Å"But–â€Å" â€Å"I'll see you in a bit.† Then she was gone. Langdon sighed heavily. He felt like he'd had enough secrets for one night. There were unanswered questions, of course–the Masonic Pyramid and the Lost Word among them–but he sensed that the answers, if they even existed, were not for him. Not as a non-Mason. Mustering the last of his energy, Langdon made his way to the Masonic library. When he arrived, Peter was sitting all alone at a table with the stone pyramid before him. â€Å"Robert?† Peter smiled and waved him in. â€Å"I'd like a word.† Langdon managed a grin. â€Å"Yes, I hear you lost one.† CHAPTER 126 The library in the House of the Temple was D.C.'s oldest public reading room. Its elegant stacks burgeoned with over a quarter of a million volumes, including a rare copy of the Ahiman Rezon, The Secrets of a Prepared Brother. In addition, the library displayed precious Masonic jewels, ritual artifacts, and even a rare volume that had been hand-printed by Benjamin Franklin. Langdon's favorite library treasure, however, was one few ever noticed. The illusion. Solomon had shown him long ago that from the proper vantage point, the library's reading desk and golden table lamp created an unmistakable optical illusion . . . that of a pyramid and shining golden capstone. Solomon said he always considered the illusion a silent reminder that the mysteries of Freemasonry were perfectly visible to anyone and everyone if they were seen from the proper perspective. Tonight, however, the mysteries of Freemasonry had materialized front and center. Langdon now sat opposite the Worshipful Master Peter Solomon and the Masonic Pyramid. Peter was smiling. â€Å"The `word' you refer to, Robert, is not a legend. It is a reality.† Langdon stared across the table and finally spoke. â€Å"But . . . I don't understand. How is that possible?† â€Å"What is so difficult to accept?† All of it! Langdon wanted to say, searching his old friend's eyes for any hint of common sense. â€Å"You're saying you believe the Lost Word is real . . . and that it has actual power?† â€Å"Enormous power,† Peter said. â€Å"It has the power to transform human kind by unlocking the Ancient Mysteries.† â€Å"A word?† Langdon challenged. â€Å"Peter, I can't possibly believe a word–â€Å" â€Å"You will believe,† Peter stated calmly. Langdon stared in silence. â€Å"As you know,† Solomon continued, standing now and pacing around the table, â€Å"it has long been prophesied that there will come a day when the Lost Word will be rediscovered . . . a day when it will be unearthed . . . and mankind will once again have access to its forgotten power.† Langdon flashed on Peter's lecture about the Apocalypse. Although many people erroneously interpreted apocalypse as a cataclysmic end of the world, the word literally signified an â€Å"unveiling,† predicted by the ancients to be that of great wisdom. The coming age of enlightenment. Even so, Langdon could not imagine such a vast change being ushered in by . . . a word. Peter motioned to the stone pyramid, which sat on the table beside its golden capstone. â€Å"The Masonic Pyramid,† he said. â€Å"The legendary symbolon. Tonight it stands unified . . . and complete.† Reverently, he lifted the golden capstone and set it atop the pyramid. The heavy gold piece clicked softly into place. â€Å"Tonight, my friend, you have done what has never been done before. You have assembled the Masonic Pyramid, deciphered all of its codes, and in the end, unveiled . . . this.† Solomon produced a sheet of paper and laid it on the table. Langdon recognized the grid of symbols that had been reorganized using the Order Eight Franklin Square. He had studied it briefly in the Temple Room. Peter said, â€Å"I am curious to know if you can read this array of symbols. After all, you are the specialist.† Langdon eyed the grid. Heredom, circumpunct, pyramid, staircase . . . Langdon sighed. â€Å"Well, Peter, as you can probably see, this is an allegorical pictogram. Clearly its language is metaphorical and symbolic rather than literal.† Solomon chuckled. â€Å"Ask a symbologist a simple question . . . Okay, tell me what you see.† Peter really wants to hear this? Langdon pulled the page toward him. â€Å"Well, I looked at it earlier, and, in simple terms, I see that this grid is a picture . . . depicting heaven and earth.† Peter arched his eyebrows, looking surprised. â€Å"Oh?† â€Å"Sure. At the top of the image, we have the word Heredom–the `Holy House'–which I interpret as the House of God . . . or heaven.† â€Å"Okay.† â€Å"The downward-facing arrow after Heredom signifies that the rest of the pictogram clearly lies in the realm beneath heaven . . . that being . . . earth.† Langdon's eyes glided now to the bottom of the grid. â€Å"The lowest two rows, those beneath the pyramid, represent the earth itself–terra firma–the lowest of all the realms. Fittingly, these lower realms contain the twelve ancient astrological signs, which represent the primordial religion of those first human souls who looked to the heavens and saw the hand of God in the movement of the stars and planets.† Solomon slid his chair closer and studied the grid. â€Å"Okay, what else?† â€Å"On a foundation of astrology,† Langdon continued, â€Å"the great pyramid rises from the earth . . . stretching toward heaven . . . the enduring symbol of lost wisdom. It is filled with history's great philosophies and religions . . . Egyptian, Pythagorean, Buddhist, Hindu, Islamic, Judeo-Christian, and on and on . . . all flowing upward, merging together, funneling themselves up through the transformative gateway of the pyramid . . . where they finally fuse into a single, unified human philosophy.† He paused. â€Å"A single universal consciousness . . . a shared global vision of God . . . represented by the ancient symbol that hovers over the capstone.† â€Å"The circumpunct,† Peter said. â€Å"A universal symbol for God.† â€Å"Right. Throughout history, the circumpunct has been all things to all people–it is the sun god Ra, alchemical gold, the all-seeing eye, the singularity point before the Big Bang, the–â€Å" â€Å"The Great Architect of the Universe.† Langdon nodded, sensing this was probably the same argument Peter had used in the Temple Room to sell the idea of the circumpunct as the Lost Word. â€Å"And finally?† Peter asked. â€Å"What about the staircase?† Langdon glanced down at the image of the stairs beneath the pyramid. â€Å"Peter, I'm sure you know as well as anyone, this symbolizes the Winding Staircase of Freemasonry . . . leading upward out of the earthly darkness into the light . . . like Jacob's ladder climbing to heaven . . . or the tiered human spine that connects man's mortal body to his eternal mind.† He paused. â€Å"As for the rest of the symbols, they appear to be a blend of celestial, Masonic, and scientific, all lending support to the Ancient Mysteries.† Solomon stroked his chin. â€Å"An elegant interpretation, Professor. I agree, of course, that this grid can be read as allegory, and yet . . .† His eyes flashed with deepening mystery. â€Å"This collection of symbols tells another story as well. A story that is far more revealing.† â€Å"Oh?† Solomon began pacing again, circling the table. â€Å"Earlier tonight, inside the Temple Room, when I believed I was going to die, I looked at this grid, and somehow I saw past the metaphor, past the allegory, into the very heart of what these symbols are telling us.† He paused, turning abruptly to Langdon. â€Å"This grid reveals the exact location where the Lost Word is buried.† â€Å"Come again?† Langdon shifted uneasily in his chair, suddenly fearing that the trauma of the evening had left Peter disorientated and confused. â€Å"Robert, legend has always described the Masonic Pyramid as a map–a very specific map–a map that could guide the worthy to the secret location of the Lost Word.† Solomon tapped the grid of symbols in front of Langdon. â€Å"I guarantee you, these symbols are exactly what legend says they are . . . a map. A specific diagram that reveals exactly where we will find the staircase that leads down to the Lost Word.† Langdon gave an uneasy laugh, treading carefully now. â€Å"Even if I believed the Legend of the Masonic Pyramid, this grid of symbols can't possibly be a map. Look at it. It looks nothing like a map.† Solomon smiled. â€Å"Sometimes all it takes is a tiny shift of perspective to see something familiar in a totally new light.† Langdon looked again but saw nothing new. â€Å"Let me ask you a question,† Peter said. â€Å"When Masons lay cornerstones, do you know why we lay them in the northeast corner of a building?† â€Å"Sure, because the northeast corner receives the first rays of morning light. It is symbolic of the power of architecture to climb out of the earth into the light.† â€Å"Right,† Peter said. â€Å"So perhaps you should look there for the first rays of light.† He motioned to the grid. â€Å"In the northeast corner.† Langdon returned his eyes to the page, moving his gaze to the upper right or northeast corner. The symbol in that corner was . â€Å"A downward-pointing arrow,† Langdon said, trying to grasp Solomon's point. â€Å"Which means . . . beneath Heredom.† â€Å"No, Robert, not beneath,† Solomon replied. â€Å"Think. This grid is not a metaphorical maze. It's a map. And on a map, a directional arrow that points down means–â€Å" â€Å"South,† Langdon exclaimed, startled. â€Å"Exactly!† Solomon replied, grinning now with excitement. â€Å"Due south! On a map, down is south. Moreover, on a map, the word Heredom would not be a metaphor for heaven, it would be the name of a geographic location.† â€Å"The House of the Temple? You're saying this map is pointing . . . due south of this building?† â€Å"Praise God!† Solomon said, laughing. â€Å"Light dawns at last.† Langdon studied the grid. â€Å"But, Peter . . . even if you're right, due south of this building could be anywhere on a longitude that's over twenty-four thousand miles long.† â€Å"No, Robert. You are ignoring the legend, which claims the Lost Word is buried in D.C. That shortens the line substantially. In addition, legend also claims that a large stone sits atop the opening of the staircase . . . and that this stone is engraved with a message in an ancient language . . . as a kind of marker so the worthy can find it.† Langdon was having trouble taking any of this seriously, and while he didn't know D.C. well enough to picture what was due south of their current location, he was pretty certain there was no huge engraved stone atop a buried staircase. â€Å"The message inscribed on the stone,† Peter said, â€Å"is right here before our eyes.† He tapped the third row of the grid before Langdon. â€Å"This is the inscription, Robert! You've solved the puzzle!† Dumbfounded, Langdon studied the seven symbols. Solved? Langdon had no idea whatsoever what these seven disparate symbols could possibly mean, and he was damned sure they were not engraved anywhere in the nation's capital . . . particularly on a giant stone over a staircase. â€Å"Peter,† he said, â€Å"I don't see how this sheds any light at all. I know of no stone in D.C. engraved with this . . . message.† Solomon patted him on the shoulder. â€Å"You have walked past it and never seen it. We all have. It is sitting in plain view, like the mysteries themselves. And tonight, when I saw these seven symbols, I realized in an instant that the legend was true. The Lost Word is buried in D.C. . . . and it does rest at the bottom of a long staircase beneath an enormous engraved stone.† Mystified, Langdon remained silent. â€Å"Robert, tonight I believe you have earned the right to know the truth.† Langdon stared at Peter, trying to process what he had just heard. â€Å"You're going to tell me where the Lost Word is buried?† â€Å"No,† Solomon said, standing up with a smile. â€Å"I'm going to show you.† Five minutes later, Langdon was buckling himself into the backseat of the Escalade beside Peter Solomon. Simkins climbed in behind the wheel as Sato approached across the parking lot. â€Å"Mr. Solomon?† the director said, lighting a cigarette as she arrived. â€Å"I've just made the call you requested.† â€Å"And?† Peter asked through his open window. â€Å"I ordered them to give you access. Briefly.† â€Å"Thank you.† Sato studied him, looking curious. â€Å"I must say, it's a most unusual request.† Solomon gave an enigmatic shrug. Sato let it go, circling around to Langdon's window and rapping with her knuckles. Langdon lowered the window. â€Å"Professor,† she said, with no hint of warmth. â€Å"Your assistance tonight, while reluctant, was critical to our success . . . and for that, I thank you.† She took a long drag on her cigarette and blew it sideways. â€Å"However, one final bit of advice. The next time a senior administrator of the CIA tells you she has a national-security crisis . . .† Her eyes flashed black. â€Å"Leave the bullshit in Cambridge.† Langdon opened his mouth to speak, but Director Inoue Sato had already turned and was headed off across the parking lot toward a waiting helicopter. Simkins glanced over his shoulder, stone-faced. â€Å"Are you gentlemen ready?† â€Å"Actually,† Solomon said, â€Å"just one moment.† He produced a small, folded piece of dark fabric and handed it to Langdon. â€Å"Robert, I'd like you to put this on before we go anywhere.† Puzzled, Langdon examined the cloth. It was black velvet. As he unfolded it, he realized he was holding a Masonic hoodwink–the traditional blindfold of a first-degree initiate. What the hell? Peter said, â€Å"I'd prefer you not see where we're going.† Langdon turned to Peter. â€Å"You want to blindfold me for the journey?† Solomon grinned. â€Å"My secret. My rules.†